Potential effects of metals on zoonotic spillover events. Metals influence pathogen load and shedding, as well as infection susceptibility, mediating the risk of direct spillover events, without intermediate hosts (A) and indirect spillover events, with intermediate hosts (B,C). Furthermore, metals present in the environment affect the viability and distribution of pathogens in media such as soil and water, affecting the outcomes of environmental contamination by pathogens (D) and the risks of environmental-borne human infections (E). Of note, although the term “zoonotic spillover” is used in different contexts in the literature, in this figure and review the expression refers to the transmission of pathogens from wildlife to humans. Source: Ellwanger et al. Journal of Xenobiotics, 2025. Access here.